If a Clincian Is Particularily Interested in a Cleint's Family Medical History
Chapter 13. Defining Psychological Disorders
13.i Psychological Disorder: What Makes a Behaviour Abnormal?
Learning Objectives
- Ascertain "psychological disorder" and summarize the general causes of disorder.
- Explain why it is so difficult to define disorder, and how the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is used to make diagnoses.
- Describe the stigma of psychological disorders and their impact on those who suffer from them.
The focus of this affiliate and the next is, to many people, the heart of psychology. This emphasis on aberrant psychology—the application of psychological scientific discipline to agreement and treating mental disorders— is appropriate, every bit more psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in any other endeavor, and these are probably the about of import tasks psychologists face. In 2012, approximately 2.8 million people, or ten.1% of Canadians aged fifteen and older, reported symptoms consistent with at least ane of 6 mental or substance use disorders in the past 12 months (Pearson, Janz, & Ali, 2013). At least a half billion people are afflicted worldwide. The half-dozen disorders measured by the Canadian Mental Health Survey were major depressive episode, bipolar disorder, generalized feet disorder, and abuse of or dependence on alcohol, cannabis, or other drugs. The impact of mental illness is particularly potent on people who are poorer, of lower socioeconomic class, and from disadvantaged ethnic groups.
People with psychological disorders are also stigmatized past the people around them, resulting in shame and embarrassment, as well every bit prejudice and discrimination against them. Thus the understanding and handling of psychological disorder has broad implications for the everyday life of many people. Table thirteen.i, "Prevalence Rates for Psychological Disorders in Canada, 2012," shows the prevalence, the frequency of occurrence of a given condition in a population at a given fourth dimension, of some of the major psychological disorders in Canada.
In this chapter our focus is on the disorders themselves. Nosotros will review the major psychological disorders and consider their causes and their bear upon on the people who suffer from them. Then in Chapter 14, "Treating Psychological Disorders," we will plough to consider the treatment of these disorders through psychotherapy and drug therapy.
Defining Disorder
A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour that causes significant distress, and that is considered deviant in that person's culture or society (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). Psychological disorders have much in mutual with other medical disorders. They are out of the patient's control, they may in some cases be treated by drugs, and their treatment is oft covered by medical insurance. Similar medical problems, psychological disorders have both biological (nature) as well as environmental (nurture) influences. These causal influences are reflected in the bio-psycho-social model of illness (Engel, 1977).
The bio-psycho-social model of affliction is a manner of understanding disorder that assumes that disorder is acquired by biological, psychological, and social factors (Figure xiii.1, "The Bio-Psycho-Social Model"). The biological component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences on disorder that come from the functioning of the individual'due south trunk. Particularly important are genetic characteristics that make some people more vulnerable to a disorder than others and the influence of neurotransmitters. The psychological component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences that come from the private, such equally patterns of negative thinking and stress responses. The social component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences on disorder due to social and cultural factors such as socioeconomic status, homelessness, abuse, and discrimination.
To consider one example, the psychological disorder of schizophrenia has a biological cause considering it is known that there are patterns of genes that brand a person vulnerable to the disorder (Gejman, Sanders, & Duan, 2010). But whether or not the person with a biological vulnerability experiences the disorder depends in large part on psychological factors such as how the individual responds to the stress he or she experiences, equally well as social factors such as whether or not the person is exposed to stressful environments in adolescence and whether or not the person has support from people who care about him or her (Sawa & Snyder, 2002; Walker, Kestler, Bollini, & Hochman, 2004). Similarly, mood and anxiety disorders are caused in office past genetic factors such as hormones and neurotransmitters, in part by the private'southward particular idea patterns, and in function by the ways that other people in the social environs treat the person with the disorder. We will apply the bio-psycho-social model as a framework for considering the causes and treatments of disorder.
Although they share many characteristics with them, psychological disorders are nonetheless different from medical conditions in important ways. For i, diagnosis of psychological disorders can exist more than difficult. Although a medical doctor tin see cancer in the lungs using an MRI scan or run across blocked arteries in the middle using cardiac catheterization, there is no respective test for psychological disorder. Current enquiry is commencement to provide more evidence nigh the function of brain structures in psychological disorder, but for at present the brains of people with severe mental disturbances often look identical to those of people without such disturbances.
Considering there are no articulate biological diagnoses, psychological disorders are instead diagnosed on the footing of clinical observations of the behaviours that the individual engages in. These observations find that emotional states and behaviours operate on a continuum, ranging from more normal and accepted to more deviant, abnormal, and unaccepted. The behaviours that are associated with disorder are in many cases the same behaviours that we engage in during our normal everyday life. Washing ane's hands is a normal healthy activeness, simply it can exist overdone past those with an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Information technology is non unusual to worry about and effort to improve ane'southward body image. The dancer in Effigy 13.2, "How Thin Is Too Sparse?" needs to be thin for her career, only when does her dieting turn into a psychological disorder? Psychologists believe this happens when the behaviour becomes distressing and dysfunctional to the person. Robert's struggle with his personal appearance, every bit discussed at the beginning of this chapter, was conspicuously unusual, unhealthy, and sorry to him.
Whether a given behaviour is considered a psychological disorder is adamant not but by whether a behaviour is unusual (east.g., whether information technology is balmy anxiety versus extreme anxiety) only as well by whether a behaviour is maladaptive—that is, the extent to which it causes distress (east.g., pain and suffering) and dysfunction (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) to the individual (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). An intense fear of spiders, for example, would not be considered a psychological disorder unless it has a significant negative bear on on the sufferer'south life, for instance by causing him or her to exist unable to step outside the house. The focus on distress and dysfunction means that behaviours that are simply unusual (such as some political, religious, or sexual practices) are not classified equally disorders.
Put your psychology lid on for a moment and consider the behaviours of the people listed in Table 13.two, "Diagnosing Disorder." For each, signal whether you lot recall the behaviour is or is not a psychological disorder. If you're non sure, what other information would you lot need to know to be more certain of your diagnosis?
| [Skip Table] | |||
| Yes | No | Demand more data | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jackie oft talks to herself while she is working out her math homework. Her roommate sometimes hears her and wonders if she is okay. | |||
| Charlie believes that the noises made past cars and planes going by outside his house have secret meanings. He is convinced that he was involved in the start of a nuclear war and that the only way for him to survive is to find the answer to a difficult riddle. | |||
| Harriet gets very depressed during the winter months when the light is low. She sometimes stays in her pajamas for the whole weekend, eating chocolate and watching TV. | |||
| Frank seems to be agape of a lot of things. He worries about driving on the highway and about severe weather that may come through his neighbourhood. Just mostly he fears mice, checking under his bed frequently to see if any are nowadays. | |||
| A worshiper speaking in "tongues" at an Evangelical church building views himself equally "filled" with the Holy Spirit and is considered blessed with the gift to speak the "linguistic communication of angels." | |||
A trained clinical psychologist would have checked off "demand more information" for each of the examples in Tabular array 13.two, "Diagnosing Disorder," considering although the behaviours may seem unusual, at that place is no articulate evidence that they are distressing or dysfunctional for the person. Talking to ourselves out loud is unusual and can be a symptom of schizophrenia, but merely because we practise it once in a while does not hateful that in that location is anything incorrect with united states of america. It is natural to be depressed, particularly in the long winter nights, but how severe should this depression exist, and how long should it last? If the negative feelings last for an extended time and begin to lead the person to miss work or classes, and so they may become symptoms of a mood disorder. Information technology is normal to worry about things, but when does worry turn into a debilitating anxiety disorder? And what near thoughts that seem to be irrational, such equally existence able to speak the language of angels? Are they indicators of a severe psychological disorder, or part of a normal religious feel? Again, the answer lies in the extent to which they are (or are not) interfering with the individual'south functioning in society.
Another difficulty in diagnosing psychological disorders is that they often occur together. For instance, people diagnosed with anxiety disorders also often have mood disorders (Hunt, Slade, & Andrews, 2004), and people diagnosed with one personality disorder ofttimes suffer from other personality disorders as well. Comorbidity occurs when people who suffer from one disorder also suffer at the same time from other disorders. Because many psychological disorders are comorbid, virtually severe mental disorders are concentrated in a small group of people (about 6% of the population) who have more than three of them (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005).
Psychology in Everyday Life: Combating the Stigma of Abnormal Behaviour
Every culture and society has its own views on what constitutes abnormal behaviour and what causes it (Brothwell, 1981). The Onetime Testament Book of Samuel tells u.s.a. that equally a outcome of his sins, God sent King Saul an evil spirit to torment him (i Samuel xvi:14). Ancient Hindu tradition attributed psychological disorder to sorcery and witchcraft. During the Centre Ages information technology was believed that mental affliction occurred when the body was infected by evil spirits, particularly the devil. Remedies included whipping, bloodletting, purges, and trepanation (cutting a hole in the skull, Effigy 13.3) to release the demons.
Until the 18th century, the most common treatment for the mentally ill was to incarcerate them in asylums or "madhouses." During the 18th century, even so, some reformers began to oppose this brutal treatment of the mentally ill, arguing that mental illness was a medical trouble that had nothing to exercise with evil spirits or demons. In French republic, ane of the cardinal reformers was Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), who believed that mental illness was caused past a combination of physical and psychological stressors, exacerbated past inhumane conditions. Pinel advocated the introduction of exercise, fresh air, and daylight for the inmates, as well every bit treating them gently and talking with them.
Reformers such every bit Phillipe Pinel (1745-1826), Dorothea Dix (1802-1887), Richard M. Bucke (1837-1902), Charles Thou. Clarke (1857-1924), Clifford Due west. Beers (1876-1943), and Clarence Chiliad. Hincks (1885-1964) were instrumental in creating mental hospitals that treated patients humanely and attempted to cure them if possible (Figure 13.5). These reformers saw mental illness as an underlying psychological disorder, which was diagnosed co-ordinate to its symptoms and which could exist cured through treatment.
Dr Richard Bucke was appointed superintendent of the Asylum for the Insane in Hamilton in 1876 and a year afterward of the asylum in London, Ontario. He believed mental illness was a failure of the man biological adaptive process. In his attempts to reform the crude treatment of mentally ill patients he abased the practice of pacifying the inmates with alcohol or restraining them, and inaugurated regular cultural and sports events for patients.
Dr Charles Clarke was an assistant superintendent at the Hamilton asylum in the early 1880s, and after superintendent of the asylum at Kingston, Ontario. By 1887 he had changed the aviary from a jail to a hospital and was instructing nurses and attendants in the intendance of the mentally ill. Past 1893 he was advocating that the term "asylum" exist dropped and that special hospitals be synthetic for the mentally ill.
Dr Clarence Hincks, born in St Mary's, Ontario, was interested in mental health partly due to his ain experiences with astringent depression. In 1918, with Beers's help, he organized the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene, which later became the Canadian Mental Wellness Association.
Dix was a Massachusetts schoolteacher who wrote, lectured, and informed the public and legislators about the sad conditions in mental institutions like those shown in Figure thirteen.iv. She was successful in influencing a number of state legislatures either to establish or meliorate their mental institutions, and because of her efforts a mental hospital was built in St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1885. She also lobbied the Nova Scotia legislature and oversaw the edifice of a hospital for mental patients in that province.
Phillipe Pinel was a French md who became intensely interested in mental health in the 1770s. He took a psychological arroyo equally opposed to the prominent biological arroyo that was the custom and introduced new forms of treatments that involved close contact with and conscientious observation of patients. Pinel visited each patient up to several times a day, engaging them in lengthy conversations, and took careful notes in an attempt to assemble a detailed example history and a natural history of the patient's affliction. At the time, his therapy was quite opposite to the usual practices of bleeding, purging, or blistering.
Despite the progress made since the 1800s in public attitudes about those who suffer from psychological disorders, people, including police, coworkers, and even friends and family unit members, nevertheless stigmatize people with psychological disorders. A stigma refers to a disgrace or defect that indicates that person belongs to a culturally devalued social grouping. In some cases the stigma of mental disease is accompanied by the use of disrespectful and dehumanizing labels, including names such as crazy, nuts, mental, schizo, and retard.
The stigma of mental disorder affects people while they are sick, while they are healing, and even after they have healed (Schefer, 2003). On a customs level, stigma tin can touch on the kinds of services social service agencies give to people with mental illness, and the treatment provided to them and their families by schools, workplaces, places of worship, and health-intendance providers. Stigma about mental illness also leads to employment discrimination, despite the fact that with appropriate support, even people with astringent psychological disorders are able to concur a chore (Boardman, Grove, Perkins, & Shepherd, 2003; Leff & Warner, 2006; Ozawa & Yaeda, 2007; Pulido, Diaz, & Ramirez, 2004).
The mass media has a significant influence on society'south attitude toward mental affliction (Francis, Pirkis, Dunt, & Blood, 2001). While media portrayal of mental illness is often sympathetic, negative stereotypes notwithstanding remain in newspapers, magazines, film, and television. (See the following video for an 
case.)
Television set advertisements may perpetuate negative stereotypes virtually the mentally ill. For example, in 2010 Burger Rex ran an advertizement called "The King's Gone Crazy," in which the company's mascot runs around an function complex carrying out acts of violence and wreaking havoc.
Watch: "Burger King: The King's Gone Crazy" [YouTube]: http://world wide web.youtube.com/watch?v=xYA7AnVwejo
The most significant problem of the stigmatization of those with psychological disorder is that it slows their recovery. People with mental bug internalize societal attitudes about mental disease, often becoming and then embarrassed or ashamed that they muffle their difficulties and fail to seek treatment. Stigma leads to lowered cocky-esteem, increased isolation, and hopelessness, and it may negatively influence the individual's family and professional life (Hayward & Bright, 1997).
Despite all of these challenges, however, many people overcome psychological disorders and keep to lead productive lives. Information technology is upward to all of us who are informed about the causes of psychological disorder and the impact of these conditions on people to empathise, first, that mental illness is not a "fault" whatsoever more than than is cancer. People exercise not choose to have a mental affliction. Second, we must all work to help overcome the stigma associated with disorder. Organizations such as the Canadian Mental Wellness Association (CMHA) assist by working to reduce the negative impact of stigma through education, community action, and individual support.
Diagnosing Disorder: The DSM
Psychologists have developed criteria that assist them determine whether behaviour should be considered a psychological disorder and which of the many disorders particular behaviours indicate. These criteria are laid out in a i,000-page manual known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) , a document that provides a common language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders (American Psychiatric Clan, 2013). The DSM is used by therapists, researchers, drug companies, wellness insurance companies, and policymakers in Canada and the Us to determine what services are accordingly provided for treating patients with given symptoms.
The first edition of the DSM was published in 1952 on the footing of census data and psychiatric infirmary statistics. Since then, the DSM has been revised v times. The last major revision was the quaternary edition (DSM-Four), published in 1994, and an update of that document was produced in 2000 (DSM-IV-TR). The 5th edition (DSM-5) is the about recent edition and was published in 2013. The Medical Council of Canada transitioned to the DSM-5 recently (MCC, 2013). The DSM-IV-TR was designed in conjunction with the World Wellness System's 10th version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which is used every bit a guide for mental disorders in Europe and other parts of the world.
The DSM does not endeavor to specify the verbal symptoms that are required for a diagnosis. Rather, the DSM uses categories, and patients whose symptoms are like to the description of the category are said to accept that disorder. The DSM frequently uses qualifiers to indicate different levels of severity within a category. For instance, an intellectual disability can exist classified as mild, moderate, severe, or profound.
Each revision of the DSM takes into consideration new knowledge also as changes in cultural norms about disorder. Homosexuality, for example, was listed equally a mental disorder in the DSM until 1973, when it was removed in response to advocacy by politically active gay rights groups and changing social norms. The electric current version of the DSM lists almost 400 disorders.
Although the DSM has been criticized regarding the nature of its categorization system (and it is frequently revised to attempt to accost these criticisms), for the fact that it tends to allocate more than behaviours as disorders with every revision (even "academic problems" are at present listed as a potential psychological disorder), and for the fact that information technology is primarily focused on Western illness, it is yet a comprehensive, practical, and necessary tool that provides a mutual language to depict disorder. About insurance companies volition non pay for therapy unless the patient has a DSM diagnosis. The DSM approach allows a systematic assessment of the patient, taking into account the mental disorder in question, the patient's medical condition, psychological and cultural factors, and the fashion the patient functions in everyday life.
Diagnosis or Overdiagnosis? ADHD, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger's Disorder
Two common critiques of the DSM are that the categorization arrangement leaves quite a bit of ambivalence in diagnosis and that it covers such a wide variety of behaviours. Permit's take a closer look at three common disorders —attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autistic disorder, and Asperger's disorder— that have recently raised controversy considering they are being diagnosed significantly more frequently than they were in the by.
Attention-Arrears/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Zack, anile 7 years, has ever had problem settling downwardly. He is easily bored and distracted. In school, he cannot stay in his seat for very long and he frequently does not follow instructions. He is constantly fidgeting or staring into space. Zack has poor social skills and may overreact when someone accidentally bumps into him or uses one of his toys. At dwelling house, he chatters constantly and rarely settles down to practise a placidity action, such equally reading a book.
Symptoms such as Zack'due south are common among 7-year-olds, and particularly amongst boys. But what do the symptoms mean? Does Zack simply have a lot of energy and a short attention bridge? Boys mature more slowly than girls at this age, and perhaps Zack will catch upward in the next few years. One possibility is for the parents and teachers to work with Zack to help him be more than circumspect, to put upwardly with the behaviour, and to look information technology out.
Just many parents, often on the advice of the child's teacher, accept their children to a psychologist for diagnosis. If Zack were taken for testing today, it is very likely that he would be diagnosed with a psychological disorder known as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a developmental behaviour disorder characterized by problems with focus, difficulty maintaining attention, and disability to concentrate, in which symptoms start before seven years of age (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2014). Although information technology is commonly beginning diagnosed in babyhood, ADHD can remain problematic in adults, and up to 7% of university students are diagnosed with it (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006). In adults the symptoms of ADHD include forgetfulness, difficulty paying attention to details, procrastination, disorganized work habits, and not listening to others. ADHD is nigh 70% more likely to occur in males than in females (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005), and is frequently comorbid with other behavioural and behave disorders.
The diagnosis of ADHD has quadrupled over the past 20 years, and it is now diagnosed in well-nigh 1 out of every 37 Canadian children. Information technology is the nigh common psychological disorder amongst children in the world (Olfson, Gameroff, Marcus, & Jensen, 2003). ADHD is also beingness diagnosed much more oft in adolescents and adults (Barkley, 1998). You might wonder what this all ways. Are the increases in the diagnosis of ADHD because today's children and adolescents are actually more than distracted and hyperactive than their parents were, due to a greater awareness of ADHD amongst teachers and parents, or due to psychologists and psychiatrists' tendency to overdiagnose the problem? Peradventure drug companies are too involved, because ADHD is often treated with prescription medications, including stimulants such as Ritalin.
Although skeptics contend that ADHD is overdiagnosed and is a handy excuse for behavioural problems, virtually psychologists believe that ADHD is a real disorder that is caused by a combination of genetic and ecology factors. Twin studies have establish that ADHD is heritable (National Institute of Mental Wellness, 2010), and neuroimaging studies take found that people with ADHD may have structural differences in areas of the brain that influence self-control and attention (Seidman, Valera, & Makris, 2005). Other studies take also pointed to environmental factors, such as a female parent'due south smoking and drinking booze during pregnancy and the consumption of atomic number 82 and nutrient additives past those who are affected (Braun, Kahn, Froehlich, Auinger, & Lanphear, 2006; Linnet et al., 2003; McCann et al., 2007). Social factors, such as family stress and poverty, besides contribute to ADHD (Burt, Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001).
Autistic Disorder and Asperger's Disorder
Jared's kindergarten instructor has voiced her business organisation to Jared'southward parents about his difficulties with interacting with other children and his filibuster in developing normal language. Jared is able to maintain middle contact and enjoys mixing with other children, merely he cannot communicate with them very well. He often responds to questions or comments with long-winded speeches almost trucks or some other topic that interests him, and he seems to lack awareness of other children'southward wishes and needs.
Jared's concerned parents took him to a multidisciplinary child development center for consultation. Here he was tested by a pediatric neurologist, a psychologist, and a child psychiatrist.
The pediatric neurologist institute that Jared's hearing was normal, and there were no signs of any neurological disorder. He diagnosed Jared with a pervasive developmental disorder, because while his comprehension and expressive language was poor, he was nevertheless able to carry out nonverbal tasks, such as cartoon a film or doing a puzzle.
Based on her observation of Jared's difficulty interacting with his peers, and the fact that he did not answer warmly to his parents, the psychologist diagnosed Jared with autistic disorder (autism), a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication and by restricted and repetitive behaviour, and in which symptoms begin before seven years of age. The psychologist believed that the autism diagnosis was correct because, like other children with autism, Jared, has a poorly adult ability to see the world from the perspective of others, engages in unusual behaviours such as talking well-nigh trucks for hours, and responds to stimuli, such as the sound of a car or an plane, in unusual means.
The kid psychiatrist believed that Jared's language bug and social skills were non severe plenty to warrant a diagnosis of autistic disorder and instead proposed a diagnosis of Asperger'due south disorder, a developmental disorder that affects a child's ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others and in which symptoms brainstorm before seven years of age. The symptoms of Asperger's are almost identical to that of autism (with the exception of a delay in language development), and the child psychiatrist simply saw these issues as less extreme.
Imagine how Jared'due south parents must have felt at this point. Clearly at that place is something incorrect with their kid, simply even the experts cannot agree on exactly what the problem is. Diagnosing problems such as Jared'southward is difficult, yet the number of children like him is increasing dramatically. Disorders related to autism and Asperger's disorder now affect 0.68% of Canadian children (Statistics Canada, 2003). The milder forms of autism, and particularly Asperger's, have accounted for most of this increment in diagnosis.
Although for many years autism was thought to be primarily a socially determined disorder, in which parents who were cold, afar, and rejecting created the trouble, current research suggests that biological factors are most important. The heritability of autism has been estimated to be as loftier equally xc% (Freitag, 2007). Scientists speculate that autism is caused past an unknown genetically determined brain aberration that occurs early in development. It is likely that several unlike encephalon sites are affected (Moldin, 2003), and the search for these areas is being conducted in many scientific laboratories.
Simply does Jared have autism or Asperger's? The problem is that diagnosis is not exact (remember the idea of categories), and the experts themselves are often unsure how to classify behaviour. Furthermore, the advisable classifications change with time and new noesis. Under the DSM-5, released on May 18, 2013, Asperger'due south Syndrome is now subsumed nether the category of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Key Takeaways
- More than psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in whatsoever other endeavour, and those tasks are probably the most important psychologists confront.
- The touch on on people with a psychological disorder comes both from the disease itself and from the stigma associated with disorder.
- A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour that causes significant distress and that is considered deviant in that person's civilisation or society.
- According to the bio-psycho-social model, psychological disorders have biological, psychological, and social causes.
- It is hard to diagnose psychological disorders, although the DSM provides guidelines that are based on a category system. The DSM is frequently revised, taking into consideration new noesis besides as changes in cultural norms most disorder.
- In that location is controversy about the diagnosis of disorders such as ADHD, autistic disorder, and Asperger'southward disorder.
Exercises and Critical Thinking
- Do yous or your friends agree stereotypes nigh the mentally sick? Can you lot recollect of or find clips from whatever films or other popular media that portray mental illness positively or negatively? Is it more than or less acceptable to stereotype the mentally ill than to stereotype other social groups?
- Consider the diagnosis of ADHD, autism, and Asperger'southward disorder from the biological, personal, and social-cultural perspectives. Do you recall that these disorders are overdiagnosed? How might clinicians decide if ADHD is dysfunctional or distressing to the private?
References
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Image Attributions
Figure 13.i: "beautiful-dancer-past-aisha-mitchell" past Gerard Van der Leun is licensed under CC Past-NC-ND ii.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/act.en_CA).
Figure 13.iii: Engraving of a trepanation by Peter Treveris (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Treveris_-_ engraving_of_Trepanation_for_Handywarke_of_surgeri_1525.png) is in public domain.
Figure 13.4: Sheriff Hill Lunatic Asylum past U.S. Library of Congress, (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sheriff_Hill_Lunatic_Asylum.jpg) is in the public domain.
Effigy xiii.5: Philippe Pinel portrait past Anna Mérimée (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philippe_Pinel_%281745_-_1826%29.jpg) is in the public domain. Benjamin Rush Painting by Charles Wilson Peale (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg) is in the public domain. Dix Dorothea portrait past U.Southward. Library of Congress, (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dix-Dorothea-LOC.jpg) is in the public domain.
Long Descriptions
| Disorder | Lifetime | 12-month | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Substance use disorder | Alcohol abuse or dependence | xviii.one% | 3.2% |
| Cannabis abuse or dependence | 6.8% | 1.3% | |
| Other drug abuse or dependence (excluding Cannabis) | four% | 0.7% | |
| Total substance employ disorders | 21.vi% | iv.four% | |
| Mood Disorder | Major Depressive Episode | xi.3% | 4.7% |
| Bipolar disorder | ii.6% | 1.five% | |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | 8.7% | 2.6% | |
| Total mood disorders | 12.6% | five.four% | |
| Total Mental/Substance disorders | 33.1% | x.1% | |
[Return to Table 13.one]
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/12-1-psychological-disorder-what-makes-a-behavior-abnormal/
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